Bottled water is the newest public enemy - in terms of health, costs, environmental friendliness and global warming
| Posted : Feb, 2008 (Return to the original web page from this print version) |
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Does this scene look familiar to you? Bottled water is under increasing public criticism due to its huge negative impact on the environment. |
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In places with good tap water supply, bottled water is simply a superfluous luxury -- a culture of indulgence. |
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| The global bottled water industry has an annual revenue of approximately US$50 billion (Source), of which US$11 billion comes from the US in 2006 (Source). Once an icon of healthy lifestyle, bottled water is under increasing public criticism because: |
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Bottled distilled water or demineralised water is harmful to health in many aspects. |
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Toxic chemicals called phthalates may leak from plastic water bottles made of PVC into water, especially after prolonged storage (e.g. 10 weeks) or under high-temperature environment. |
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The price of bottled water is very expensive relative to tap water. |
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Huge amount of plastic waste is generated from bottled water, with over 80% going to the landfill. Toxic chemicals released during degradation contaminate the soil and ground water. |
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The production and transportation of bottled water consumes a lot of petroleum with emission of tons of greenhouse gases. |
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| In countries where tap water safe for drinking is readily available with negligible cost, the widespread consumption of bottled water is simply a superfluous luxury -- a culture of indulgence. Bottled water "very clearly reflects the wasteful and reckless consumerism in this country," said Mayor Ross Anderson of Salt Lake City, Utah of USA (Source). |
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| In addition, some people think that it is morally incorrect to drink bottled water in affluent countries with good public water distribution systems, while over a billion people worldwide lack access to clean drinking water. An advocacy group in the US, Corporate Accountability International, regarded bottled water as a corporate abuse -- the takeover of a natural resource that should belong to everyone. (Source) |
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| In the US, more than 40% of bottled water is actually filtered or treated tap water. In places like Hong Kong, a high percentage of bottled water consumed is distilled water harmful to health. It is time to take a closer look at what is inside the bottle, and its impact on our health and the environment. |
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| Major types of bottled water in the market: |
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| 1. |
Distilled water or demineralised water - produced mainly from distillation, reverse osmosis, and electrolysis. |
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| 2. |
Non-treated spring water - bottled at source from springs. |
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| 3. |
Treated spring water - may be filtered, or added with other ingredients or water in plants before bottling. |
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| 4. |
Tap water - either non-treated, or filtered and treated before bottling. |
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Flavoured or nutritionally enhanced water (may originate from the tap or demineralised water) - Some contain additional flavourings with fruit or vegetable extracts, while others have added vitamins, minerals, herbal supplements, or various types of antioxidants. |
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According to WHO, demineralised water, including distilled water, is harmful to health in many aspects. |
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Toxic chemicals called phthalates may leach from PVC bottles into the water over time. (PVC bottles are opaque, as compared to transparent PET bottles.) |
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Male foetus exposed to phthalates may suffer from malformed reproductive system & changes in male characteristics |
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| I. Potential harm of bottled water to health |
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| 1.1 |
Harm of bottled demineralised water (including distilled water) to health |
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In the office environment of many countries, it has been a common practice to drink bottled distilled water from a water dispenser. However, according to the World Health Organisation (more info), demineralised water (including distilled water) is harmful to the body in many aspects. It reduces the water content inside body cells, and increases the excretion of water and minerals through urine. |
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Demineralised water also upsets the balance of sodium and chloride ions, and hampers the proper functions of cell membranes, many body enzymes and hormones. There is zero or low intake of calcium, magnesium and essential microelements from demineralised water. |
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Consumers may suffer from tiredness, weakness, headache, muscular cramps and impaired heart rate. In severe acute cases, brain oedema, convulsions and metabolic acidosis may occur. |
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| 1.2 |
Toxic chemicals of phthalates may leak from plastic water bottles made of PVC |
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The plastic containers of bottled water are either made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or polyethylene terepthalate (PET or PETE). The PVC bottles are opaque (not see-through) while the PET bottles are transparent. All PVC plastic bottles contain some toxic chemicals called phthalates, which are used to soften the plastics. |
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Since phthalates are not chemically connected with the plastic that contains them, they can leach out from the PVC bottles over time (Source). One study found that water stored for 10 weeks in PVC bottled water contained phthalates (Source). Bottled water placed under the sun, or overheated in vehicles in hot summer days, may speed up the release of phthalates into the water. |
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Phthalates are known to disrupt testosterone (male hormone) and other hormones, as well as associated with early onset of puberty among girls (more info) and exacerbated allergic reactions (more info). High levels of phthalates, e.g. through occupational exposure, may result in adult infertility and cancer. |
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Studies also found that exposure by male foetus to phthalate in the womb would result in dramatic changes in male characteristics and incomplete development of the male reproductive system. Unfortunately, the adverse effects to male foetus were seen at phthalate levels below those found in one-quarter of women in the US, based on a nation-wide survey by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (Source) (Figures in other places not known) |
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Remark: PET bottles usually do not contain phthalates. But they contain additives of UV-stabilisers, brighteners and tougheners etc. (Source). It is not known whether these additives also leach from the PET bottles and what are their impacts on human health. |
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Over 40% of bottled water sold in the US is from the tap. |
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Carbon dioxide bubbles added to carbonated water makes the water acidic, hence harmful to health. |
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| II. Are you paying too much for the bottled water, especially if it is from the tap? |
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| In the US market, it is estimated that lion shares of the retail price of bottled water goes to the retailer (around 50%), and to cover distribution and transport costs (up to one third). Another 10 -12% is the costs of the water itself, the plastic bottle and the cap (Source) |
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| In 2006, people in the US alone consumed 8.25 billion gallons of bottled water. According to Beverage Marketing, an industry consulting firm, more than 40% of bottled water in the US is filtered or treated tap water (Source: Nov 12, 2007). |
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| Two major bottlers of tap water are Coca-Cola Co. (brand of Dasani, 13% market share) and Pepsi-Cola Inc. (brand of Aquafina, 11% market share). Both companies highlight the purity of their products by putting the tap water through an energy-intensive filtering process of reverse osmosis. (Source; Related News: Reuters, BBC, CBC) |
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| However, this process not only consumes extra oil in production but also removes all the natural minerals and essential elements originally present in the water. |
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| Some brands of bottled water are carbonated, hence much more expensive. Ironically, all carbonated drinks becomes acidic after adding the carbon dioxide bubbles, and acidic water is harmful to health (more info). That is, we are paying a lot of money to turn normal, healthy water into a harmful version for consumption. |
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| In an even worse case, the carbon dioxide bubbles in San Pellegrino are extracted from supercarbonated volcanic springs in Tuscany, then trucked north and injected into the water from the source in Italy (Source). This is an example of how our culture of indulgence on taste is fueling the frantic oil consumption and rapid rate of global warming today. |
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The production and transportation of bottled water consume a lot of oil, with emission of tons of greenhouse gases. |
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Glass bottles are much heavier, hence consume more oil in transportation. |
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Over 80% of plastic containers of bottled water ended up in the landfill without recycling. |
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PET is derived from crude oil. It will take 400 to 1,000 years for it to degrade. |
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| III. Bottled water is extremely environmental unfriendly, generating tons of plastic waste and greenhouse gases |
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| 3.1 |
Oil consumption in the production of bottles |
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In the US alone, about 50 billion plastic water bottles were consumed in 2006, 167 for each person (Source). It was estimated that 17 million barrels of oil was used that year to manufacture these plastic containers, enough to fuel more than a million cars for a year. And this generated more than 2.5 million tons of carbon dioxide. (Source; Related News: Nov 12, 2007) |
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| 3.2 |
Oil consumption in transportation and distribution of bottled water |
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In 2004, the well-known French brands of Evian and Volvic exported between 50 - 60% of their water to destinations across the globe. (Source) |
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In 2006, the equivalent of 2 billion half-litre bottles of water was shipped to U.S. ports. In New York City alone, the transportation of bottled water from Western Europe released an estimated 3,800 tons of greenhouse gases. In California, 18 million gallons of bottled water were shipped in from Fiji in South Pacific (5,500 miles away) in 2006, producing about 2,500 tons of global warming pollution (Source). |
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Addition oil is required to transport the heavy bottles of water to the stores and then to the homes of consumers. Even worse, some bottled water comes in glass bottles instead of plastics in order to boost the product image as a premium brand. These heavy glass bottles dramatically increase the freight costs and energy consumption in transportation. With no recycling for glass containers in many places, they are often just thrown away. |
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| 3.3 |
Contamination with plastic wastes |
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Every day, an estimated 60 million plastic water bottles are thrown away in the US alone (Source: Oct 14, 2007). The Container Recycling Institute, USA, says 86% of water bottles, equivalent to 2 million tons of plastics a year in the US, end up in the landfill instead of undergoing recycling (Source: Nov 12, 2007). |
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The plastic most commonly used for bottled water is polyethylene terepthalate (PET or PETE), with recycling code "1". PET is derived from crude oil. It will take between 400 and 1,000 years for the plastic debris to degrade in the environment (Source). |
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For PVC bottles (recycling code "3"), toxic chemicals (such as phthalates) are leached from the plastics during degradation. They pollute the soil and the ground water nearby. If burnt, PVC bottles release harmful chlorine gas into the atmosphere (Source). Almost all PVC bottles are not recycled because they would contaminate and complicate the recycling of PET bottles (Source). |
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If we project the scenario above to all the countries, the total figures of oil consumption, carbon dioxide emission, and plastic wastes generated worldwide due to bottled water would certainly be astronomical and extremely worrisome. |
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The 5-year unrest in Darfur of Sudan was started in 2003 due to conflict over scarce water resources. More than 200,000 people died, with 2 million refugees.(Source). |
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Photo: Darfur refugees eating in a camp. |
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| IV. With water crisis in many places, bottled water has become a moral issue with an impact on war and peace |
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| With over a billion people worldwide without access to clean drinking water (Source), bottled water has even emerged as a moral issue, a peace issue. In the US, the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom has launched a three-year "Save the Water" campaign in 2007 to encourage people to take tap water instead of bottled water. It is based on the notion that drinking bottled water encourages privatization, which can lead to wars over water. (Related News: Nov 12, 2007) |
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| Bottled water may worsen the existing water crisis in poor countries. For example, in the developing country of Fiji, more than a million bottles of Fiji Water are producted a day for the U.S. market today, while more than half the people in Fiji do not have safe, reliable drinking water. (Source) |
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| How can there be an endless supply of mineral water from natural springs? |
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| There can't be. At the current alarming global consumption rate of spring water, it may not take too belong before the major springs run dry. The water taken out of these springs is often shipped to other locations, instead of recycling in nature back into the local ground. |
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| In 2003, Poland Spring, one of the largest bottler of spring water in the US, was sued because because some of their bottled water was pumped from wells, not from a spring as claimed on the label, and could contain surface contamination. The original Poland Spring has not flowed since 1967. (Source: June 20, 2003; Mar 8, 2006) |
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| The massive withdrawal of water from natural springs is having serious impact on the nearby residents and ecosytem. In order the meet the growing demand on bottled water, many water bottling companies are setting off a series of water wars in miniature with local citizens and governments. (Related News: Jun 12, 2006) |
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| V. A common misperception that "bottled water is cleaner, safer, and tastes better than tap water" |
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| 5.1 |
Safety standards and bacteria counts |
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The quality of tap water in most developed countries is quite often closely scrutinized to ensure its safety. In contrast the quality control in many commercial water bottling companies may often be not as strict. It basically relies on the companies’ management and their business ethics to ensure product quality. |
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Bottled water is commonly disinfected by ozone treatment. Ozone (O3) is quickly reverted to normal oxygen (O2) in the disinfection process. The length of time ozone remain active in water depends on many factors, including temperature. In general, ozone provides a residual disinfection for a limited time. |
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Public water systems are generally disinfected with chlorine, which has more persistent residual disinfection in the tap water. Therefore, in terms of bacterial content, it is questionable as to whether bottled water is better than most municipal tap water. (Source) |
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Bottled water is generally stored for longer periods and at higher temperatures than water distributed in piped distribution systems. Therefore it may be more difficult to manage some biological and chemical substances in bottled water than tap water. Proper quality control of materials used in containers and closures for bottled water is of special concern. In addition, some micro-organisms, which are normally of little or no public health significance, may grow to higher levels in bottled water. (Source: Fact sheet of WHO on Bottled drinking water - October, 2000) |
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In one study conducted by the Case Western Reserve University and Ohio State University, USA, researchers compared 57 samples of bottled water with tap water from Cleveland in Ohio. |
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It was found that bacterial counts in the four tap water samples varied only slightly, from 0.2 to 2.7 bacterial colonies per millilitre (ml). For bottled water, bacterial counts ranged from less than 0.01 to 4,900 colonies per ml. Six samples (10.5%) of bottled water had high bacteria counts of 1,500 to 4,900 colonies per ml. The study was published in The Archives of Family Medicine, a journal of the American Medical Association. (Related News: Mar 22, 2000) |
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In another study conducted by an US environmental group, Natural Resources Defense Council, over 1,000 bottles of 103 different brands of bottled water were tested. It was found that about 22% of the brands tested contained, in at least one sample, chemical contaminants at levels above state health limits. (Source) |
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| 5.2 |
Why some bottled water has an off-taste |
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At the concentrations present in drinking water, most harmful substances have no taste. These include some disease-causing microorganisms, nitrates, trace amounts of lead and mercury, and some pesticides and organic materials (Source). So, where's the off-taste from? |
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For prolonged storage under elevated temperatures, PET plastics bottles may start to degrade. A colourless gas, called acetaldehyde, is formed in the process. It can cause an off-taste in the water, even at very low concentration. (Source) |
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| 5.3 |
Tap water can taste better than bottled water, as shown in a taste test on the London tap water |
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In the UK, a taste test was recently conducted on the London tap water with a wide range of expensive bottled water, the panel was made up of Masters of Wine, top sommeliers and some taste experts in the country. The London tap water was ranked third among the 24 products tested. |
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One of the most expensive products, equivalent to £50 a litre, came 18th in the test. The results came one month after the National Consumer Council launched a campaign to force restaurants to offer free tap water to customers. (Related News: Dec 19, 2007) |
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"Londoners should boycott bottled water in favor of cheaper, better-tasting and more environmentally friendly tap water", Mayor Ken Livingstone said in London, UK. (Related News: Feb 19, 2008) |
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Remark: The unpleasant taste found in some tap water may be due to the residual chlorine used in disinfection, or due to rusty and poorly maintained pipes. This can be easily overcome by using a water filter at home or in the office to remove the chlorine and any other contaminants from the distribution pipes. |
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Bogus bottled water in developing countries |
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The top four countries for bottled water consumption are in the order of the US, Mexico, China, and Brazil (Source). Bottled water is popular in developing countries mainly due to the fear of water safety from the tap. However, the safety of bottled water can be even worse in these countries, especially where rampant counterfeit is common. |
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For example, in China, it was recently discovered that out of an annual sales volume of at least 200 million units of bottled water, 100 million were counterfeit. Another nationwide inspection on bottled water in 2004 found that 22% of products were substandard. The counterfeit rate was as high as 80% in the southern province of Jiangxi. (Related News: July 10, 2007) |
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A safer option is to install an effective water filter to the tap at home or in the office in these developing countries. Government bodies should put higher priorities in improving the public water distribution system to make tap water safe to drink. |
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In the complex molecular matrix of natural foods, there are many unidentified constituents that may have important health benefits. |
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Many types of flavoured bottled water have added sugar to make them more tasty, giving people a few more unwanted calories. |
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Sweetened bottled water is feeding the obesity epidemic. Many of these products specifically target young children. |
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As reported in the media, artificial sweeteners are poison in disguise, and should be avoided to protect your health. |
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| VI. A common misperception that "nutritionally enhanced" bottled water is better than plain tap water |
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| In recent years, the beverage industry has been touting a new category of bottled water called "functional beverages", which are treated with flavourings, vitamins, minerals, herbal supplements, or various types of antioxidants added. |
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| These beverages have been promoted as not just hydrating, but may also be claimed as being able to "protect your skin from the inside out", "improve your mood", "increase energy and alertness", "boost the immune system", or even "fight hangovers" etc. (Source) |
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| 6.1 |
Extra artificial vitamins and minerals - not the same as the natural ones, only catered for people with specific needs |
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Endurance athletes who have lost a large amount of minerals through sweat may benefit from drinks enhanced with minerals. Extra minerals may be required for populations whose source of water supply is from desalination plants, but this problem should be addressed nation-wide by adding minerals to the treated water in the plants, instead of encouraging citizens to consume imported bottled mineral water. |
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According to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the US, random fortification of foods with vitamins and minerals could result in over-supplementation and nutrient imbalances (Source and more info). High doses of a single nutrient may result in a "relative deficiency" for another nutrient. |
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For example, high calcium intakes inhibit the absorption of iron and possibly other trace elements (Source). Excess vitamin A appears to interfere with the absorption of vitamin K, a key anti-aging vitamin (Source). |
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"More" does not always mean "better". It can even be harmful. |
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The toxicities of high doses of nutrients such as vitamins A, B-6, D, niacin, iron, and selenium are well established. For example, large doses of vitamin A to pregnant women may lead to birth defects or malformation. Hence, the US Food and Nutrition Board recommends pregnant women to avoid supplementation with preformed vitamin A during the first trimester, unless there is specific evidence of vitamin A deficiency. (Source) |
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As indicated by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the US, it is not appropriate to fortify carbonated beverages and other snack foods with added nutrients (Source). |
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The artificially produced vitamins or minerals in drinks are not as good as those occurring naturally. The best option is to have a well balanced diet with plain water from natural sources. This is because many unidentified constituents that may have important health benefits are contained in the complex matrix of natural foods. (Source) |
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| 6.2 |
Added sweeteners are feeding the obesity epidemic, while zero-calorie artificial sweeteners are poison in disguise |
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In flavoured bottled water, sweeteners such as sucrose syrup (sugar) or high-fructose corn syrup are often added. For a lot of people, this simply adds extra unwanted calories, feeding the obesity epidemic. |
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Even worse, some flavored water branded as "zero calorie" uses artificial sweeteners such as sucralose (brand name as "Splenda") or aspartame (brand name as "Equal" or "Nutra-Sweet"). As reported in the media, these artificial sweeteners are actually poison in disguise, causing serious harm to health. (more info on the harm of sucralose and aspartame) |
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In addition, a lot of marketing campaigns of these sweetened and flavoured drinks specifically target young children, making them wrongfully expect all drinks, even water, should be sweet. (Related News: Apr 17, 2004) |
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None of the nutritionally enhanced drinks had any proof of impact, and the general public was told they were deficient in something when they were actually not, according to Professor Barry Popkin who directs the Interdisciplinary Center for Obesity at the University of North Carolina, USA. (Related News: Nov 2, 2007) |
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A 3-yr old kid is fetching drinking water from a muddy pool. (photo with courtesy from World Vision HK) |
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Providing clean drinking water to all citizens should be one of the top priorities for all governments. |
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| VII. Government actions required to curb the wasteful consumerism of bottled water |
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| According to the International Water Management Institute, clean water could be provided to everyone on earth for an outlay of US$1.7 billion a year beyond current spending on water projects. Improving sanitation, which is just as important, would cost a further US$9.3 billion per year. This sum is less than a quarter of the global annual spending on bottled water. (Related News: Aug 1, 2005) |
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| To counter the growing trend of bottled water consumption, government bodies worldwide should take prompt actions on the followings: |
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Improve the public water distribution system, so that the quality of tap water is good for safe consumption. |
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Educate the public on the harmful consequences of drinking bottled water to both the consumers and the society as a whole. |
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Mandatory require all bottled water to state the exact water source on its label. Other information should also include whether it is from the tap, any filtering or water treatment done, the name and location of the spring for spring water etc. (For e.g., in October, 2007, Arnold Schwarzenegger, California Governor in the US, signed legislation requiring water labels to specify the source, beginning in 2009. - Source) |
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Mandatory require all distilled or demineralised bottled water to include a label of "Not suitable for regular drinking". |
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Play a role model in banning bottled water in government offices. For e.g. the city governments of San Francisco, Boston and New York, USA, have stopped offering free bottled water in council and committee meetings. Other counties such as Santa Clara and San Jose in California are considering the same move. (Source: Nov 12, 2007) |
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| In an era in which many countries own the technologies of rockets, satellites, advanced fighter jets, nuclear power, nanotechnology, and supercomputer etc., there is absolutely no reason that providing clean drinking tap water to all citizens by their governments is something beyond possible reach. |
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Let's start to conserve water from now and get prepared for the unpredictable. |
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| Let's start to use less, and conserve water supplies from now |
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| If you are living in places where natural water supply is abundant, let's start to conserve water and just use as little as we can, so that we can share this precious resource with others residing in locations with water crisis. |
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| Under rapid global warming, the incidence of water crisis may become more frequent. It's time to start changing our habits and get prepared for the unpredictable. |
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